Gender Issues and Sustainable Development: We Need to Pay More Attention

The term ‘sustainable development’ was first used by the Brundtland Commission in its 1987 report Our Common Future. It defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Two factors critical to sustainable development are access, at reasonable coats, to adequate supplies of energy and clean water. It is in this context that we consider issues of gender equity, which is a core development objective in its own right. It is also clear that gender equity is a key to successful development.

For purposes of development gender is a social and not a biological construct. It refers to a set of relations, including power relations, which define social function on the basis of sex. Thus, gender relations can be changed, and while gender relations are not inherently oppressive, all too often they are oppressive of women. Where gender equity (equality) is missing, meaning that women and men do not have equal conditions for realizing their full human rights and potential to contribute to national, political, economic, social and cultural development, and to benefit from the results, there are serious negative consequences for development.

Women head one-third of the world’s families (in parts of Latin America families headed by women are the majority) and frequently are the financial mainstays of and principal energy and water providers for their families. They are responsible for half of the world’s food production, and produce between 60 and 80 percent of the food in most developing countries. To produce adequate sanitation, food, and energy for cooking, women and girls must first ‘produce’/gather water, firewood, charcoal and dung. It is known that in developing countries women and girls spend many hours each day doing so. This reduces significantly the time they might otherwise use for education, community involvement and cottage industries that generate revenue. If safe and reliable water sources do not exist nearby they are forced to pay exorbitant prices to street vendors or rely on unsafe local water resources. This has major implications for hygiene and the spread of diseases among poor women and their families. They are also harmed by inhaling the smoke and particulates associated with burning biomass and cooking in confined spaces. Finally, poor women’s access to energy and water is less than that of poor men because decisions are most likely made by men and the needs of women are often ignored or undervalued. This has led to a situation where women are among the poorest of the poor in most parts of the world, leading to a ‘feminization of poverty’. ​

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While it is true that the lives of many women and girls has changed dramatically in some areas over the past several decades, it is also true that progress toward gender equity has been limited in others, including developed countries. The different positions of men and women in societies are influenced by historical, religious, economic, and cultural factors, all of which are difficult and slow to change.

Two international development organizations committed to improving gender equity are the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank. Many UN programs either focus on gender equity (e.g., UN Women: UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women) or recognize the central role of women in many development activities (e.g., the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation arising from the 2002 Rio World Summit on Sustainable Development, and the activities of the Food and Agriculture Organization/FAO of the UN).
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The World Bank has a broad range of programs as well, including the 2007 launch of its Gender Action Plan which provides support to women and girls in traditional economic sectors, GenderStats, a compilation of data at the country level on key gender topics, and an Advisory Council on Gender and Development. Another organization worth mentioning here is Energia, “an international network on gender and sustainable energy which links individuals and groups concerned with energy, sustainable development, and gender.” It was founded in 1985 and is now active in many countries on several continents.

Aside from the immorality of denying women equality with men, it is also bad economics. To quote the World Bank’s Gender Overview: “Under-investing in women puts a break on poverty reduction and limits economic and social development. Gender equality is a long-term driver of competitiveness and equity that is even more important in an increasingly globalized world. No country can afford to fall behind because it is failing to enable women and men to participate equally in the economy and society.”

A few numbers will help to illuminate the problem: “Of the estimated two million annual deaths attributed to indoor air pollution generated by combustion of fuels such as coal, wood, charcoal and dung, 85% are women and children who die from cancer, acute respiratory infections and lung disease.” (World Health Organization and UNDP, 2009). “..illnesses from indoor pollution results in more deaths of women and children annually than HIV/AIDS, malaria! tuberculosis and malnutrition combined.” (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2013).

The good news is that two-thirds of all countries have now reached gender parity in primary education, and in over one-third girls significantly outnumber boys in secondary education (see World Development Report: Gender Equality and Development, World Bank, 2012). Unfortunately, these gains have not been universal and too many women are still dying in childbirth, lack the ability to participate in decisions that affect them, their families, and their communities, and are limited in their economic opportunities. There is still much work to be done.

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Subsidies For Energy Technologies: Are They Fair?

Subsidies for energy technologies is a complicated and contentious issue and one that a few studies have tried to illuminate for the rest of us. For what I consider informative and balanced discussions I would refer you to
– ‘Reforming Fossil-Fuel Subsidies to Reduce Waste and Limit CO2 Emissions while Protecting the Poor’, Global Subsidies Initiative of the International Institute for Sustainable Development (iisd), September 2012
– Ken Silverstein’s October 23, 2013 piece in the e-journal energybiz entitled ‘Fossil Fuels and Green Energy Feed Mightily at the Public Trough’
– ‘Analysis & Projections: Direct Federal Financial Interventions and Subsidies in Energy in Fiscal Year 2010’, U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), August 1, 2011
– ‘Federal Financial Support for the Development and Production of Fuels and Energy Technologies’, Congressional Budget Office (CBO), March 2011.

There are many other useful sources of information as well. Of course vested interests on all sides of the energy debate have taken their shot at this topic. For example, the views of the fossil fuel industries can be found in the publications of the Institute for Energy Research (IER) and often in the pages of the Wall Street Journal. Supporters of subsidies for renewable energy technologies are active as well in expressing their views via statements by trade associations such as the American Wind Energy Association and the Solar Energy Industries Association. All in all, a difficult subject to get one’s objective hands around, but I will try (foolishly?) in this blog post. Admittedly a strong advocate for rapid progress toward a renewable energy future, I will try to be as balanced as I can in my discussion, as I truly want to better understand this subject and believe that informed public opinion is the long term prerequisite to a sustainable energy future. I will let you judge how successful I have been.

I start with a few definitions and some ‘facts’ that all sides in this debate can hopefully agree upon.
– “Subsidies are one of many policy instruments used by governments to attain economic, social and environmental objectives.” (iisd)
– “Energy subsidies, in particular, are often used to alleviate energy poverty and promote economic development, by enabling access to affordable modern energy services.” (iisd)

The EIA, in its analysis, refers to ‘energy subsidies and interventions’ in five categories: direct cash expenditures to energy producers and consumers, tax expenditures via provisions in the tax code, R&D expenditures for increasing energy supplies or improving energy efficiency, loans and loan guarantees for certain energy technologies, and electricity supply programs targeted at specific geographical regions (e.g., TVA and BPA). The discussion in this blog post touches on the first four.

U.S. tax code energy incentives were first established in 1916 and until 2005 were focused on stimulating domestic production of oil and natural gas. Incentives for improved energy efficiency and renewable energy (solar, wind, ….) were introduced starting in 2006 and by 2011 accounted for 78% of a substantially increased amount of federal energy-related tax expenditures in that year. However, it is important to recognize that this large support for ‘clean energy’ was due to passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), and did not imply a reduction in tax code incentives for fossil fuels or nuclear energy. To put some numbers into this discussion, CBO estimates that tax preferences (“..special deductions, special tax rates, tax rates, tax credits, and grants in lieu of tax credits..”) in 2011 amounted to $20.5 billion. An additional $3.4 billion was provided in FY 2012 by DOE in R&D support for fossil fuels, nuclear energy, energy efficiency, and renewable energy.

CBO also points out that of the four major tax preferences operative in 2011, only four were permanent parts of the tax code (the energy efficiency part of ARRA expired at the end of 2011 and the tax preferences for renewable energy were scheduled to expire by 2013), of which three were directed at fossil fuels and one at nuclear energy.

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A quick word about nuclear energy: the Atomic Energy act of 1946, following the end of WWII, created a framework for government control of civilian nuclear power plants for electricity generation. Industry was concerned about potential liability in the event of a nuclear accident and the limited amounts of liability coverage initially offered by the insurance market, so in 1957 Congress passed and President Eisenhower signed into law the Price-Anderson Act, which has been renewed several times since, and “..governs liability-related issues for all non-military nuclear facilities constructed in the United States before 2026. The main purpose of the Act is to partially indemnify the nuclear industry against liability claims arising from nuclear accidents while still ensuring compensation coverage for the general public.” (Wikipedia). In its latest incarnation the Act requires the nuclear industry to cover the first $12.6 billion of damages, with costs above that to be covered by retroactive increases in nuclear utility liability or the federal government. Regardless of one’s view of nuclear energy, I believe it is fair to say that a U.S. civilian nuclear power industry would not exist without the Price-Anderson Act.

What is my take on all this, an issue I followed closely through my many years in federal service and still follow? Energy is clearly a driving force in economies, and prominence of nations at various points in history have reflected their energy sources – e.g., the Dutch with wind power in the 1600’s, the British with coal in the 1800’s, and the U.S. with oil in the 20th century. So energy is critically important and U.S. policies to encourage oil, natural gas and coal production were central to America’s emergence as a leading economy and nation. However, the context has changed – we now have well-established fossil fuel industries, supplying approximately 80% of global energy today, and we now understand that combustion of fossil fuels puts large amounts of pollutants and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. These carbon emissions, which mix into the global atmosphere regardless of where they are generated, cause global warming as they change the earth’s energy balance with the sun and create climate change that seems irrefutable and which we are struggling to better understand. So the world has a conundrum: use of fossil fuels helps improve human welfare in lots of ways, but that use is creating a problem that is a severe threat to the planet’s health. These considerations have led to major efforts to develop and deploy clean energy technologies – improved energy efficiency to reduce our need for carbon-emissive fossil fuels, and renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, hydropower, ocean) that do not emit carbon dioxide during power generation. Nuclear power is also a non-carbon-emitting power source that is receiving increased attention.

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Some people, including President Obama, have called for a phase-out of oil industry incentives, especially in light of unusually high profits recorded by major oil companies such as Exxon and Shell. This seems reasonable, as high oil prices today are providing adequate incentive to these companies. A complicating factor is that smaller, independent producers drill most of the onshore U.S. oil wells today, and are responsible for creating the wells that are delivering increasing amounts of home-grown shale oil and gas that are reducing consumer costs, creating domestic jobs, and bringing some factories back to the U.S. from overseas locations. If jobs and national security are our immediate priorities, then incentives for this domestic production by small producers should be maintained. The hitch is that this should not slow down national investment in clean energy technologies which are critical to our long-term economic and national security interests. This is where Congress has to exercise wise judgement as it sets national energy policy – taking care of today’s needs while investing in the future. The transition from today’s fossil-fuel-dependent world will take time, but it would be irresponsible to not look down the road and make necessary investments today that put us firmly on the road to a sustainable energy future. Without government intervention of this type, “..households and businesses do not have a financial incentive to take into account the environmental damage or other costs to the nation associated with their choices about energy production and consumption…unless the government intervenes, the amount of research and development (R&D) that the private sector undertakes is likely to be inefficiently low from society’s perspective because firms cannot easily capture the ‘spillover benefits’ that result from it.” (CBO). Our current energy pricing system does not take into account the ‘externalities’ of energy use such as public health effects and dependence on other countries for part of our energy needs.

In the end it comes down to values, as reflected in policy and budgets. When I first came to Washington, DC and worked on Capitol Hill I was told quickly that ‘budgets are policy’. I feel strongly that we lack a forward-looking national energy policy, which I ascribe to a failure by Congress to do its job of looking to the future, anticipating issues that will face the country, and taking the necessary steps to begin addressing those issues. When such a policy vacuum exists in Washington states often take the lead out of necessity, and that is happening now. We can clearly do better at the federal level to serve our long-term national interests.

Lighting: A Revolution In Progress

An energy revolution is underway before our very eyes – the replacement of traditional incandescent light bulbs with much more energy efficient and longer lasting light-emitting diodes (LEDs). It is a significant revolution because, according to NYSERDA, lighting accounts for 22% of electricity consumption in the U.S.. Other sources put this number at 19% on a global basis. It is estimated that LED use could cut the U.S. number in half by 2030.

At this point it may be fair to ask: What about CFLs (compact fluorescent lamps), which had been gaining market share for many years. A few words about lighting technology before we answer this question.

An incandescent light bulb, the most common type today in households and the least expensive to buy, produces visible light from a glowing filament wire (tungsten) heated to a high temperature (several thousand degrees) by an electric current passing through it. It was not invented by Thomas Edison, as is often stated (many earlier inventors had experimented with hot filament lamps), but he did invent the first commercially practical incandescent bulb. It was introduced into residential use more than 125 years ago. Its principal shortcoming is that more than 90% of the energy used by the traditional incandescent bulb escapes as heat and less than 10% goes into producing light. Filaments also burn out and are fragile, and a typical bulb lifetime is about 1,000 hours.

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Halogen lamps, also in common use today, are incandescent lamps with a bit of halogen gas (iodine or bromine) added to the bulb. The chemical reaction between the halogen and the tungsten wire allows the filament to operate at a higher temperature and increases the bulb’s efficiency and lifetime.

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A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a low pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses UV-stimulated fluorescence of a phosphor to produce visible light. It is more energy efficient than an incandescent lamp but does require a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, increasing its initial cost.

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Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) fold a fluorescent lamp tube into the space of an incandescent bulb with a ballast in the base. They use 3-5 times less energy than incandescent bulbs of the same light output and have much longer lifetimes. They do contain a small amount of mercury, creating a disposal problem.

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Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are monochromatic, solid-state semiconductor point light sources. First appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available at visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths with very high brightness. Today they are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting and traffic signals. They are also used in the infrared remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. Their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

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LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive (but costs are coming down) and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Their advantages over CFLs are greater efficacy (i.e., more light output in lumens per watt), longer lifetimes, smaller size, directionality of the light produced, and very importantly they contain no mercury which has to be disposed of. These factors will limit CFLs’ time in the ‘limelight’ (I know, bad pun).

(Note: LEDs are based on inorganic (non-carbon-based) materials. OLEDs are organic (carbon-based) solid-state light emitters which are made in sheets that provide a diffuse-area light source. They are still in an early stage of development and several years away from broad commercial application. Interesting potential applications include TVs, computer and cell phone screens, wall coverings that allow changes in color, and automobile skins that allow you to change the color of your car.)

It is useful to compare these different lighting technologies, as white light emitters, in terms of their current efficiencies (efficacies), lifetimes, and color temperatures (measured in degrees Kelvin, as an indicator of the warmth or coolness of the light emitted). Efficacies for monochromatic LEDs are higher but are not listed here.

Technology Efficacy Lifetime Color Temperature
(lumens/watt) (hours) (K)
…………………………………………………….
Incandescent 12-18 750-1,500 2,400-2,900
CFL 60-70 6,000-10,000 2,700-6,500
Fluorescent tube 80-100+ 20,000 2,700-6,500
Halogen 16-29 2,000-4,000 2,850-3,200
White light LED 20-50. Up to 100,000 2,700-6,500

A quick calculation will help to demonstrate the cost effectiveness of lighting sources that may be more costly to buy but save energy and money over extended lifetimes (and don’t forget that not replacing bulbs as often also saves money by reducing labor costs). I will use CFLs as my example.

Assume we buy a 15 watt CFL bulb that today costs $6 and replaces a 65 watt incandescent bulb that costs $1. We further assume that the CFL will last 6,000 hours, the incandescent 1,500 hours (clearly a worst case for CFLs and a best case for incandescents), and that electricity costs 10 cents per kilowatt-hour. Over 6,000 hours the CFL will consume (0.015 kW)x(6,000h)=90 kWh for a total cost (purchase + energy use) of $15. The incancandescent will have been replaced four times in 6,000 hours and consumed (0.065kW)x(6,000h)=390 kWh for a total cost of $43. You save lots of money ($43-$15=$28) despite the higher initial cost for the CFL, and this is per bulb. In addition to this reduced cost the reduced energy consumption will be reflected in fewer carbon emissions from power plants supplying the needed electricity.

Finally, a word about the claim that the U.S. Congress has outlawed use of the incandescent bulb. This is not true, although other countries have done so. What the U.S. Congress has done is pass the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, which set performance standards for all general service incandescent lamps producing 310-2,600 lumens of light. The efficiency standard will start with 100-watt bulbs and end with 40-watt bulbs. Light bulbs outside of this wattage range are not covered, along with several classes of specialty bulbs (e.g., stage lighting). Thus, if bulb manufacturers can develop an incandescent bulb that meets the specified performance standard it can be marketed and sold in the U.S. Some are even beginning to appear. This is the same approach that is taken with respect to reducing the electricity consumption of many other household appliances such as refrigerators and dish washers.